{"id":13,"date":"2012-10-22T10:14:19","date_gmt":"2012-10-22T08:14:19","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/?page_id=13"},"modified":"2012-11-12T15:52:38","modified_gmt":"2012-11-12T13:52:38","slug":"spielstruktur","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/spielstruktur\/","title":{"rendered":"Spielstruktur"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>Anbei ein paar Zitate, die eine Ann\u00e4herung an das versuchen sollen, woran wir Spiel erkennen, was wir auf den ersten oder zweiten Blick als Spiel wahrnehmen.<br \/>\nWie bei Heinz von Foersters Konzept der &#8220;prinzipiell beantwortbaren und prinzipiell unbeantwortbaren Fragen&#8221; bereits anklingt: Die Definition mag genau so viel \u00fcber den Definierenden, seine Kultur und Profession aussagen, als \u00fcber den definierten Gegenstand.<\/p>\n<p><em>\u00abEach person defines games in his own way &#8211; the anthropologists and folklorists in terms of historical origins; the military men, businessmen, and educators in terms of usages; the social scientists in terms of psychological and social functions. There is overwhelming evidence in all this that the meaning of games is, in part, a function of the ideas of those who think about them.<\/em>\u00bb<br \/>\n\u2013 E.M. Avedon in &#8220;The Structural Elements of Games&#8221; in &#8220;The Study of Games&#8221;, Sutton-Smith and Avedon, Eds., New York 1971, p.438<\/p>\n<p>Paglieri weist darauf hin, dass Spiele bei Kindern und Erwachsenen &#8211; notwendigerweise &#8211; verschiedene Strukturmerkmale aufweisen.<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;(&#8230;) children\u2019s play is manifestly different from adult games, and several authors speculated that such difference is neatly captured in English by the distinction between \u2018play\u2019 and \u2018game\u2019 (among others, Huizinga, 1949; \u2028Bateson, 1956; Caillois, 1961). According to the dominant wisdom, play in childhood is mainly symbolic, that is, involving pretence and make-believe, while playing adults incline to comply with precise rules, as in card games, board games, society games, and sports. <\/em><br \/>\n<em>Some developmental theorists (e.g., Piaget) put an even\u2028stronger emphasis on presence\/absence of well-defined rules in human play, as a characteristic feature of different stages in cognitive and social development. In this view, young children do not engage in games with rules not simply as a matter of taste, but because they lack some of the necessary socio-cognitive skills to manage\u2028 well-behaved cooperation under normative constraints \u2013 in other words, they are still too egocentric to understand and make use of shared values and common rules.&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Fabio Paglieri (2005), &#8220;Playing By and With the Rules: Norms and Morality in Play Development.&#8221;, p.149<\/p>\n<p><strong>Strukturmerkmale des Spiels im Allgemeinen<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eine der bekanntesten Spieldefinitionen stammt von Johan Huzinga:<\/p>\n<p><em>\u201eSpiel ist eine freiwillige Handlung oder Besch\u00e4ftigung, die innerhalb gewisser festgesetzter Grenzen von Zeit und Raum nach freiwillig angenommenen aber unbedingt bindenden Regeln verrichtet wird, ihr Ziel in sich selbst hat und begleitet wird von einem Gef\u00fchl der Spannung und Freude und einem Bewusstsein des \u201aAndersseins\u2019 als das \u201agew\u00f6hnliche Leben\u2019\u201c<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Johan Huizinga (1938), Homo Ludens.<\/p>\n<p>Fast ebenso bekannt ist die Aufstellung von Roger Caillois, zwei Jahrzehnte sp\u00e4ter:<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;(\u2026) the preceeding analysy permits play to be defined as an activity which is essentially:<\/em><br \/>\n<em> 1. Free: in which playing is not obligatory; if it were, it would at once lose its attractice and joyous quality as diversion;<\/em><br \/>\n<em> 2. Separate: circumscribed within limits of space and time, defined and fixed in advance;<\/em><br \/>\n<em> 3. Uncertain: the course of which cannot be determined, nor the result attained beforehand, and some latitude for innovations being left to the player\u2019s initiative;<\/em><br \/>\n<em> 4. Unproductive: creating neither goods, nor wealth, nor new elements of any kind; and, except for the exchange of property among the players, ending in a situation identical to that prevailing at the beginning of the game;<\/em><br \/>\n<em> 5. Governed by rules: under conventions that suspend ordinary laws, and for the moment establish new legislation, which alone Counts;<\/em><br \/>\n<em> 6. Make-believe: accompanied by a Special awareness of a second reality or of a free unreaiity, as against real life.&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Roger Caillois (1958), &#8220;Man, Play and Games&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>Im deutschsprachigen Raum stellt Hans Scheuerl eine \u00e4hnliche Definition wie Caillois auf:<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Eine knappe Handvoll Kennzeichen scheint zu gen\u00fcgen, um Spiel und Spielerisches in den verschiedenartigsten Erlebnis- undd Erfah\u00adrungsbereichen erkennen, benennen und charakterisieren zu k\u00f6nnen. (&#8230;) Das Moment der Freiheit (&#8230;) inneren Unendlichkeit (&#8230;) Scheinhaftigkeit (&#8230;) Ambivalenz (&#8230;) Geschlossenheit (&#8230;) Gegenw\u00e4rtigkeit (&#8230;)&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n<em>\u2013 Hans Scheuerl: Zur Begriffsbestimmung von \u201eSpiel\u201c und \u201espielen\u201c. Zeitschrift f\u00fcr<\/em> P\u00e4dagogik, 21. Jahrgang 1975, Nr.3, S.341-342<\/p>\n<p>Brian Sutton-Smiths und Jean Piagets Spielmerkmale sind gleichzeitig funktionale Erkl\u00e4rungen des Spiels (siehe auch Sigmund Freuds <a href=\"http:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/spielfunktionen\/\">funktionale Erkl\u00e4rung<\/a>):<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Play is a subset of voluntary behaviour involving a selective mechanism which reverses the usual contingencies of power so as to permit the subject a controllable and dialectical simulation of the moderately unmastered arousals and regulations of everyday life, in a way that is alternatively vivifying and euphoric.&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Brian Sutton-Smith: &#8220;Die Dialektik des Spiels&#8221;, 1977, S.64<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Play is that voluntary action which has a dialectical structure and which potentiates reversible operations.&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Brian Sutton-Smith: &#8220;Die Dialektik des Spiels&#8221;, 1977, S.98<\/p>\n<p><em>\u00abPlay can be recognized by the more or less large-scale change in the relation of equilibrium between the reality relation and the ego. One could thus say: if adaptive activity and thought produce an equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation, then play begins at the point at which assimilation begins to dominate accommodation. (&#8230;) Play is thus practically pure assimilation.\u00bb<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 J. Piaget: Gesammelte Werke, Bd. 5: &#8220;Nachahmung, Spiel und Traum&#8221;, quoted in Claus Pias:&#8221;Action, Adventure, Desire&#8221;<br \/>\n[Accomodation: Changing your impression from the world according to new experiences. Assimilation: Interpreting the world according to your experiences and attitudes.]<\/p>\n<p>Batesons definiert die Spielmerkmale als medienbegr\u00fcndend, also zwischen Struktur und Funktion. Ohne Spiel w\u00e4ren Medien (als Konzept) f\u00fcr den Menschen nicht denkbar: Auch hier geht es um Dinge, die nicht f\u00fcr das stehen, was sie eigentlich sind. Ein Mord in einem Film ist nicht das selbe wie ein Mord in der Realit\u00e4t&#8230;:<\/p>\n<p><em>\u00abMit einer Erweiterung gewinnt die Feststellung &#8220;Dies ist ein Spiel&#8221; etwa folgendes Aussehen: &#8220;Diese Handlungen, in die wir jetzt verwickelt sind, bezeich\u00adnen nicht, was jene Handlungen, f\u00fcr die sie stehen, bezeichnen w\u00fcrden.&#8221;\u00bb<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Gregory Bateson, &#8220;Eine Theorie des Spiels und der Phantasie&#8221; in Bsteson (1982): &#8220;\u00d6kologie des Geistes&#8221;, S.244<\/p>\n<p>Weiterhin gibt es Merkmale, die das Spiel eher philosophisch definieren:<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Playing a game is the voluntary attempt to overcome unnecessary obstacles.&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Bernhard Suits (2005), &#8220;The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia&#8221;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Definitionen f\u00fcr Regelspiele<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Es gibt nat\u00fcrlich auch zahlreiche neuere Definitionen von Gamedesignern, die naturgem\u00e4\u00df einen anderen Blick auf das Spielph\u00e4nomen haben, da sie haupts\u00e4chlich von Regelspielen ausgehen:<\/p>\n<p><em>\u00abA game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome.\u00bb<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman (2004), \u201cRules of Play\u201d<\/p>\n<p><em>\u00abA game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, make decisions in order to manage resources through game tokens in the pursuit of a goal.\u00bb<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Greg Costikyan (1994), &#8220;I have no words &amp; I must design&#8221;<\/p>\n<p><em>\u00abA game is a rule-based system with a variable and quantifiable outcome, where different outcomes are assigned different values, the player exerts effort in order to influence the outcome, the player feels attached to the outcome and the consequences of the activity are optional and negotiable.\u00bb<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Jesper Juul (2005), \u201cHalf-Real. Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds\u201d, p.37<\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;When you strip away the genre differences and the technological complexities, all games share four defining traits: a goal, rules, a feedback system, and voluntary participation.&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Jane McGonigal (2011), &#8220;Reality is Broken&#8221;, p. 29<\/p>\n<p><strong>Andere Spieldefinitionen<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Roger Ebert ist einer der prominentesten Filmkritiker der USA. Vor einigen Jahren brachte er die Gamer-Gemeinde gegen sich auf durch die Behauptung, dass Spiele als interaktives Medium niemals Kunst sein werden.<br \/>\nHier ist seine \u2013 sehr subjektive \u2013 Spieldefinition:<em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;I know it by the definition of the vast majority of games. They tend to involve (1) point and shoot in many variations and plotlines, (2) treasure or scavenger hunts, as in &#8220;Myst,&#8221; and (3) player control of the outcome. I don&#8217;t think these attributes have much to do with art; they have more in common with sports.&#8221;<\/em><br \/>\n\u2013 Roger Ebert (2007), <a href=\"http:\/\/rogerebert.suntimes.com\/apps\/pbcs.dll\/article?AID=\/20070721\/COMMENTARY\/70721001\">&#8220;Games vs. Art: Ebert vs. Barker&#8221;<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Spielzeuge vs. Regelspiele in diesem Seminar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eine kurze Kl\u00e4rung: Es geht in diesem Seminar haupts\u00e4chlich um Regelspiele (&#8220;Ludus&#8221;), weniger um &#8216;freies&#8217; Spielen bzw. die nicht-regelgebundene Verwendung von Spielzeug (&#8220;Paidia&#8221;, s. Roger Caillois (1961): &#8220;Man, Play and Games&#8221;) &#8211; obwohl es einen Augenblick der Regellosigkeit und des Rausches, des Experimentierens und Explorierens geben muss, wenn ein neues, mit-teilbares Regelspiel erschaffen wird:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edublog.me\/spieleseminar\/files\/2011\/04\/ThingsToysAndGames.png\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"ThingsToysAndGames\" src=\"http:\/\/edublog.me\/spieleseminar\/files\/2011\/04\/ThingsToysAndGames.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"545\" height=\"240\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Playing is a complex sequence of anarchistic toying, innovative game creation and rule-complying gaming, of turning aspects of reality into virtuality.&#8221;<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Playing is about choices and the communication of these choices: What I choose to do within a game \u2013 and that I choose to be in a game in the first place.&#8221;<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;Games themselves consist of two layers: a static regulative-narrative frame as a result of game creation, and the course of individual games performed within, as result of players playing the game.&#8221;<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;If a given game represent a simplified version of a medium \u2013 including an (artificial) cultural background in the form of background story or base<\/em><em> metaphors \u2013 then a played game represents a unique expressive exchange within this medium: the rules may limit the choices available, but cannot foretell which trail of decisions will be made by the player, while narratives motivate the player and justify certain directions of this course.&#8221;<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edublog.me\/spieleseminar\/files\/2011\/04\/VirtualityExpressiveChoiceRepeatability.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" title=\"VirtualityExpressiveChoiceRepeatability\" src=\"http:\/\/edublog.me\/spieleseminar\/files\/2011\/04\/VirtualityExpressiveChoiceRepeatability.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"781\" height=\"375\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><em>&#8220;While classic media deliver structured information, games provide a structure for the experimental formation of structured information.&#8221;<\/em><\/p>\n<p>\u2013 Wey-Han Tan (2009): <a href=\"http:\/\/blogs.epb.uni-hamburg.de\/metagames\/files\/2008\/05\/Tan_Thesis_PlayingWithEducationalGames.pdf\">&#8220;Playing (with) Educational Games: First and Second Order Gaming.&#8221;<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Aufgabe:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Definiere auf deine eigene Weise &#8220;Spiel&#8221; &#8211; nicht generalisierend, sondern als pers\u00f6nliches Manifest. So, wie du es gerne einsetzen oder angewendet sehen m\u00f6chtest. Was geh\u00f6rt f\u00fcr dich zu einem (gutem) Spiel unbedingt dazu?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Anbei ein paar Zitate, die eine Ann\u00e4herung an das versuchen sollen, woran wir Spiel erkennen, was wir auf den ersten oder zweiten Blick als Spiel wahrnehmen. Wie bei Heinz von Foersters Konzept der &#8220;prinzipiell beantwortbaren und prinzipiell unbeantwortbaren Fragen&#8221; bereits &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/spielstruktur\/\">Continue reading <span class=\"meta-nav\">&rarr;<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":14,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":2,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-13","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/13","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/14"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=13"}],"version-history":[{"count":11,"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/13\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":205,"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/13\/revisions\/205"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edublog.me\/spielzuegeundregelbrueche\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}